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Swine gut health research

Gut Health & Nutrition Library · Technical Article

Butyrate Salts and Esters in Swine Diets: Trial Evidence, Doses and Phase Programs

What pig trials, two independent meta-analyses and challenge studies actually show about sodium butyrate, coated sodium butyrate and butyrate glycerides — from the nursery through the finisher to the sow herd, and how to turn that into inclusion rates you can defend.

Author: Shouhui Chen — SKF (Beijing) Biotechnology Co., Ltd. · Last updated: 28 September 2026 · Reading time: ~13 min

Key takeaways

  • A 2024 meta-analysis of butyrate glycerides in weaned piglets (12 studies, 838 pigs) found average daily gain SMD 1.58 (95% CI 0.80–2.36; P<0.0001), F/G SMD −0.85 (P=0.0002) and diarrhoea rate SMD −2.78 (P=0.0003), with feed intake unaffected; the authors suggested 1–2% inclusion of the products tested. [2]
  • A separate meta-analysis of sodium butyrate in post-weaning piglets (9 studies) found the benefit concentrated in the first two weeks after weaning — body weight gain (P=0.004), feed intake (P=0.010) and feed conversion (P=0.002) — with no significant effect on intestinal morphology, implying the response is not simply a villus-height story. [3]
  • The most decision-relevant dose–response trial used an antibiotic control: 200 weaned piglets over 42 d, with 1,000–2,500 mg/kg tributyrin against 40 mg/kg bacitracin zinc. 2,000 and 2,500 mg/kg raised ADG and lowered F/G beyond the antibiotic control; 1,000–1,500 mg/kg matched it and improved digestibility and villus morphology. [4]
  • Compared head-to-head in nursery pigs, 0.2% tributyrin produced ~11% higher ADG than a negative control versus ~6.6% for doxycycline, and a diarrhoea rate 46% below the antibiotic group — from a 21-day, single-farm study that should be read as promising rather than conclusive. [5]
  • Under pathogen challenge the evidence is real but uneven: sodium butyrate at 3 kg/t for ~4 weeks before slaughter cut faecal Salmonella detection in one of two finisher trials (30% vs 57%/66%) without significantly improving growth, [13] while 0.1% butyrate glycerides reduced diarrhoea severity in ETEC F4/F18 co-infected weaners. [15]
  • Regulatory reality check: the products and doses discussed here are not authorised for the same claims everywhere. In the EU, glyceryl tributyrate holds a flavouring-only authorisation (2b09211) with a recommended maximum of 5 mg/kg complete feed, which does not cover performance or gut-health claims. In the US, tributyrin is GRAS for human food as a flavouring under 21 CFR 184.1903 — that is not itself an animal-feed authorisation. In China, tributyrin's new feed additive approval is scoped to broiler chickens, whereas sodium butyrate is listed for all farmed animals. See Section 6. [23],[24],[25]
How to read this article — scope and claims. This is a technical summary of published research, including Chinese-language journals and theses, which are identified as such. Statements about performance, digestibility, immunity or pathogen load are findings reported in the cited studies — they are not product efficacy claims, not guarantees of on-farm results, and not claims that any product prevents, treats or cures disease. Several studies cited here are master's theses, supplier-reported trials or translated trade-press reports rather than peer-reviewed papers; each is labelled where it appears. Regulatory status and permitted claims differ by country and by species; read Section 6 and the disclaimer before using any of this in labels, brochures or sales communication.

1. Why butyrate sits at the centre of post-weaning nutrition

Weaning is the single most damaging transition in commercial pig production: the piglet loses sow milk, faces a solid diet of different composition, is mixed and moved, and does so while its immune and digestive systems are still immature. The typical result is villus atrophy, deeper crypts, disrupted tight junctions, a fall in feed intake and a window of opportunity for enterotoxigenic E. coli and Salmonella. [7],[8]

Butyrate (butyric acid, C4:0) is the preferred respiratory fuel of colonocytes, supports villus growth and tight-junction integrity, modulates inflammation and induces endogenous host defense peptides. [1],[7] Free butyric acid itself is volatile, odorous and largely absorbed or metabolised in the foregut, so it rarely reaches the hindgut where much of its biology plays out — which is exactly why commercial products are salts or esters: sodium butyrate (SB), coated / fat-matrix-protected sodium butyrate, tributyrin (TB) and α-monobutyrin (MB). [7],[8],[9] Tributyrin passes the stomach intact and is hydrolysed stepwise by pancreatic lipases along the small intestine, releasing three molecules of butyric acid per molecule of ester. [9]

Go deeper on mechanism: for how butyrate acts on enterocytes, host defence peptides, tight junctions and immunity — with an evidence-strength ranking and a cross-species dose comparison table — see How Butyrate and Butyrate Esters Work in the Gut: Mechanisms, Evidence Strength and Boundaries. For broiler data, see Tributyrin and Butyrates in Broiler Diets.

2. What the pooled evidence shows

Two meta-analyses now cover the weaner phase — one for butyrate glycerides, one for sodium butyrate. They are not interchangeable, and both carry caveats.

Pooled analysisScopeMain findings
Butyrate glycerides in weaned piglets (2024) [2]12 studies, 838 pigs; Review Manager 5.4ADG SMD 1.58 (95% CI 0.80–2.36; P<0.0001); F/G SMD −0.85 (95% CI −1.29 to −0.40; P=0.0002); diarrhoea rate SMD −2.78 (95% CI −4.27 to −1.28; P=0.0003); ADFI not significant (P=0.30). Authors suggested 1–2% inclusion.
Sodium butyrate in post-weaning piglets (2023) [3]9 studies; responses expressed as % of unsupplemented controls, dose as covariateFirst 2 weeks post-weaning: BWG (P=0.004), feed intake (P=0.010), FCR (P=0.002) improved. Whole period: gain (P=0.025), feed intake trend (P=0.064). No significant effect on feed efficiency over the whole period or on intestinal morphology parameters (P>0.05).

Sources: Yang et al., Feed Industry (China), online first 18 Jan 2024, no DOI assigned; [2] Chalvon-Demersay et al., 10th Symposium on Gut Health in Production of Food Animals, St. Louis, 2022. [3]

Three honest readings follow from these two tables. First, butyrate's most reliable weaner effect is early — the first fortnight after weaning, which is precisely when intake collapses. Second, feed intake is usually unchanged or only marginally affected, so improvements come through gain and efficiency rather than appetite. Third, the second meta-analysis found no significant effect on villus height or crypt depth, which should make us cautious about repeating "butyrate grows villi" as a mechanistic claim: the pooled morphology data do not support it, even if individual trials do.

A network meta-analysis of short-chain fatty acids and immune indices (from a Chinese master's thesis whose animal trials were in poultry) ranked SCFA salts highest for raising IgG, IgM, IgA, globulin and lymphocyte counts and lowering pro-inflammatory cytokines, with SCFA esters notable for IgG and lysozyme activity. [22] Treat it as hypothesis-generating: the underlying trials were not in pigs.

3. Phase-by-phase and form-by-form evidence

Evidence is strongest in the nursery, thin in grower-finisher pigs and mixed in sows. Weaner trials run against bacitracin zinc found 1,000–1,500 mg/kg matched the antibiotic, while gilt trials found reproductive parameters largely unchanged.

3.1 Nursery and weaner pigs — the core of the evidence

  • Dose–response against an antibiotic control (Zhu et al., 2020). 200 Duroc × Landrace × Yorkshire piglets weaned at 21 d (7.66 kg), 5 groups × 5 replicates × 8 pigs, 42 d. Control: basal diet + 40 mg/kg bacitracin zinc; treatments: 1,000 / 1,500 / 2,000 / 2,500 mg/kg tributyrin. Versus the antibiotic control, 2,000 and 2,500 mg/kg significantly increased ADG and lowered F/G, and raised serum IgM; 1,500–2,500 mg/kg raised serum glucose and total protein, increased jejunal and ileal villus height and villus:crypt ratio, increased apparent digestibility of crude protein, ether extract, calcium and phosphorus, and lowered serum globulin and diamine oxidase; 1,000 mg/kg already improved crude protein and ether extract digestibility and lowered diamine oxidase. The authors' conclusion: 1,000–1,500 mg/kg can replace the antibiotic growth promoter; 2,000–2,500 mg/kg does so and adds measurable performance, morphology and immunity benefits. [4]
  • Tributyrin versus doxycycline (Chen, 2024). 180 nursery pigs (~8 kg), 3 groups × 5 replicates × 12 pigs, 21 d: control, 1 kg/t doxycycline, 0.2% tributyrin. ADG was ~6.6% higher with doxycycline and ~11% higher with tributyrin versus control (P<0.01), and the tributyrin group exceeded the antibiotic group by ~4%. Diarrhoea rate: control was 43.5% higher than doxycycline and 69.5% higher than tributyrin; the tributyrin group's rate was 46% below the antibiotic group. Single farm, 21 days, 3 pages of reporting — promising, not definitive. [5]
  • Against a zinc-oxide-plus-antibiotic programme (Bai et al., 2016). 270 weaned pigs (8 kg), 3 treatments × 3 replicates × 30 pigs; the control diet carried 0.30% zinc oxide plus colistin sulfate, bacitracin zinc and chlortetracycline. Tributyrin at 0.2% and 0.4% raised ADFI by 4.94% and 5.47% (P>0.05), ADG by 11.66% and 10.36% (P<0.05) and lowered F/G by 7.26% and 7.82% (P<0.05). [6]
  • A European commercial-farm trial (supplier-reported). 180 weaners (26–28 d, 6.59 kg), 2 groups × 9 pens × 10 pigs, 6 weeks; the test diet supplied 3 kg/t of an α-monobutyrin + tributyrin blend for the first 3 weeks and 1.5 kg/t thereafter. Result: ADG +3.7%, FCR improved 9.5% (P=0.023), and a modest reduction in diarrhoea score in the first 3 weeks only (1.167 vs 1.278). The farm was described as low-pathogen-pressure, and the authors noted the benefit would likely be larger under higher challenge. This is a manufacturer's account of its own product trial, published in trade press. [10]
  • Classic work, via review. A 2022 Chinese review compiles earlier trials: 0.17% sodium butyrate fed from 6 kg to 102 kg increased ileal villus height and crypt depth; 10 g/kg butyrate glycerides with 3 g/kg lactitol for 42 d raised villus height ~12% versus control; 0.5 g/kg tributyrin in piglets weaned at 18 d increased duodenal and ileal crypt depth and stimulated digestive enzyme activity. [7] These are secondary citations — consult the originals before relying on the numbers.

3.2 Growing–finishing pigs — thinner evidence, but it exists

This is where the literature is weakest, and where formulators most often extrapolate from piglet data. Two sources are worth knowing.

  • Master's thesis, Southwest University (Sun, 2019). A metabolism trial (6 barrows, 54 kg, 3×3 Latin square) and a growth trial (30 pigs from 27.4 kg, 3 groups × 10 individually penned pigs, 69 d), comparing a basal diet, basal + 40 g/t bacitracin zinc, and basal + 2 kg/t of a coated sodium butyrate product (≥30% sodium butyrate). In the growth trial, versus the negative control, the butyrate group finished heavier (87.3 vs 84.4 kg, P=0.042), gained faster (0.91 vs 0.86 kg/d), ate more (2.42 vs 2.23 kg/d) and converted better (F/G 2.57 vs 2.68, P=0.024), with no significant difference from the antibiotic group; carcass weight (59.5 vs 56.5 kg) and loin-eye area (15.9 vs 12.4 cm²) were higher, backfat was lower than the antibiotic group, and the diarrhoea index was not significantly affected. In the metabolism trial, crude protein, dry matter and ether extract digestibility exceeded the negative control, and crude fibre digestibility exceeded both other groups. Caveats: 10 pigs per group, a thesis rather than a peer-reviewed paper, and a coated product at 2 kg/t that delivers roughly 600 g/t of sodium butyrate. [11]
  • Peer-reviewed grower–finisher work. Morel et al. (2019) compared benzoic acid, sodium butyrate and benzoic-acid-coated sodium butyrate for growth performance, digestibility, intestinal morphology and meat quality in grower–finisher pigs. [12] A 2023 Journal of Animal Science trial in weaners found 1 kg/t of medium-chain-fatty-acid-protected sodium butyrate increased mucin-secreting cell numbers and improved ileal digestibility. [21]

Note the contrast with poultry: in the pig grower–finisher trial above, feed intake rose with butyrate. Do not copy broiler intuition into pig programs.

3.3 Sows and gilts — plausible mechanism, modest and inconsistent data

A 2022 review in the Chinese Journal of Animal Nutrition argues that butyrate can influence sow reproduction through follicular, embryonic and mammary development, and through oxidative-stress and inflammation pathways, while flagging that application questions remain unresolved. [19] The trial data behind it are thin and not uniformly positive:

  • Gilts (Wang, 2015, thesis). 60 gilts, 0.05% sodium butyrate from 30 d before breeding to day 7 of lactation (~160 d). No significant effect on oestrus rate, first-service conception rate, return-to-oestrus, farrowing rate, gilt retention, gestation length, farrowing duration, backfat at any point, litter weight, total born, born alive or weak piglets. Newborn piglets from supplemented gilts had greater body height and heart girth (P<0.01; P<0.05) with unchanged birth weight; day-7 weight tended higher (P=0.051) and daily gain was significantly higher. Colostrum showed lower prolactin, leptin and triglyceride, lower TNF-α and higher IgA. Read plainly: sodium butyrate did not move reproduction in this trial; it nudged early piglet growth and colostrum immune profile. [18]
  • Sows through gestation and lactation (Ji, 2016, thesis). 85 Large White sows in three groups (control, 5% crude fibre, 0.1% sodium butyrate) from one week before insemination to weaning. Piglet birth weight was significantly higher in the butyrate group (P<0.05) and both the fibre and butyrate groups were heavier than control at weaning (P<0.05); serum IGF-1 and longissimus muscle weight were unchanged, while the fibre group showed higher muscle DNA content in newborn piglets. [17]
  • In vitro reproduction work. A 2025 thesis examined tributyrin in porcine oocyte in vitro maturation and embryo development. [20] In vitro findings are mechanistic background, not evidence of a feeding effect on litter size.

4. Doses: reconciling two very different numbers

Anyone reading this literature will hit an apparent contradiction: trials talk about 1,000–2,500 mg/kg, while one meta-analysis recommends 1–2%. The reconciliation is product concentration. The meta-analysis pooled commercial "butyrate glyceride" products of varying (often modest) purity, so its 1–2% is a product inclusion rate; the dose–response trials report either pure tributyrin or a stated-purity product. Always convert to butyrate ion before comparing.

FormPublished trial dose (pigs)Practical inclusion
Tributyrin (TB)1,000–2,500 mg/kg vs bacitracin zinc, 2,000–2,500 mg/kg best [4]; 0.2% (2,000 mg/kg) vs doxycycline [5]; 0.2% / 0.4% vs ZnO + antibiotics [6]; 0.5 g/kg in early weaners [7]Commonly 1–2 kg/t of a 60% powder in the nursery phase, stepped down later; convert on butyrate-ion basis
α-Monobutyrin + tributyrin blends3 kg/t (first 3 wk) → 1.5 kg/t (next 3 wk), commercial farm [10]Per product specification; supplier-reported
Sodium butyrate (coated, ≥30% SB)2 kg/t in grower–finisher (~600 g/t SB) [11]; 1 kg/t MCFA-protected in weaners [21]0.5–3 kg/t depending on coating and target segment
Sodium butyrate (uncoated)0.05% in gilts [18]; 0.1% in sows [17]; 0.17% from 6 kg to slaughter in older work [7]Sows/gilts 0.05–0.1%; weaners usually coated
Butyrate glycerides under challenge0.1% (1,000 mg/kg) under ETEC F4/F18 co-infection [15]Challenge periods justify the upper end of the range

Practical column reflects formulation practice reported in the cited literature and trade sources; it is not a regulatory clearance. Butyrate-ion reference points: sodium butyrate ≈79% butyrate ion; a 30% coated product ≈24%; tributyrin ≈86%.

5. Under challenge: Salmonella and ETEC

The strongest pathogen data in pigs come from Salmonella work in Ireland, and they are a good illustration of why "it worked" needs a trial number attached.

  • Finishers, pre-slaughter (Walia et al., 2016). On two commercial farms with high Salmonella seroprevalence, pens were assigned to control feed or the same feed with 3 kg/t sodium butyrate for 24–28 days before slaughter. In Trial A, the probability of detecting Salmonella in faeces at the end of the trial was 30% versus 57% in controls, with significantly reduced seroprevalence at slaughter; in Trial B the effect was not significant, possibly because of co-infection with other pathogens. Growth was numerically but not significantly better, and the authors calculated a cost benefit of €0.04/kg live-weight gain. Importantly, the additive did not reduce intestinal carriage and did not bring seroprevalence below Ireland's 50% high-risk threshold. [13]
  • Growers, experimental infection (Lynch et al., 2017). Forty 7-week-old pigs (14.7 kg) in pens contaminated via seeder pigs with monophasic Salmonella Typhimurium; diets were control, sodium butyrate, benzoic acid or a formic–citric blend for 28 days, and the trial was repeated. 96% of pigs became infected within two days. Faecal Salmonella concentration was significantly reduced by sodium butyrate (P=0.001) and by the formic–citric blend (P<0.0001), and average daily gain was significantly higher in all supplemented groups than in the positive control. [14]
  • Protected sodium butyrate in fatteners (Casanova-Higes et al., 2017) examined Salmonella infection dynamics in fattening pigs on farm. [16]
  • ETEC, the post-weaning diarrhoea model (Kovanda et al., 2023). Twenty individually housed piglets weaned at 21–24 d received a control diet or the control plus 0.1% butyrate glycerides or 0.1% valerate glycerides, then were inoculated with ETEC F4 and F18 on three consecutive days. Diarrhoea severity over the trial was significantly lower in both supplemented groups than control (P<0.05); serum TNF-α on day 4 post-inoculation was significantly lower in the valerate group. The authors describe it explicitly as a pilot experiment establishing a co-infection model — n=20, so directional rather than definitive. [15]

All of the above are controlled challenge or field-prevalence studies. They describe research findings; they are not a claim that any product prevents or treats salmonellosis or post-weaning diarrhoea, and they do not replace vaccination, hygiene and biosecurity.

6. Practical notes: processing, specifications, equivalence and regulation

  • Processing and handling: uncoated sodium butyrate is hygroscopic and carries a strong cheesy-rancid odour; coating and esterification exist mainly to solve odour, hygroscopicity and premature absorption, and coating inevitably dilutes the butyrate content of the product. [8],[9] Butyrate glycerides are the most heat-stable and least odorous form, but require lipase activity for release and may not liberate butyrate completely. [8]
  • Specification discipline: products of nominally similar concentration differ in what the carrier actually holds. Ask for a certificate of analysis that quantifies the tributyrin (or sodium butyrate) fraction and reports free butyric acid, mono- and di-butyryl esters and moisture.
  • Convert on butyrate ion, not mass: swapping a 30% coated sodium butyrate at 1 kg/t for a 60% tributyrin powder at 1 kg/t is roughly a three-fold change in delivered butyrate. Do the arithmetic before you change suppliers or forms.

Regulatory status — read this before you repeat any claim.

  • European Union: glyceryl tributyrate (CAS 60-01-5, FLAVIS 09.211) is an authorised feed additive under identification number 2b09211 — category "sensory additives", functional group 2b "flavouring compounds", authorised by Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2017/54, with a recommended maximum of 5 mg/kg complete feed (12% moisture). [23] Butyric acid and a range of esters were (re)authorised as flavouring compounds for all animal species by Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2023/1417. [23] These are flavouring authorisations: they do not cover zootechnical claims such as growth promotion or gut-health support, and they sit orders of magnitude below the inclusion levels discussed in this article.
  • United States: tributyrin (glyceryl tributyrate, CAS 60-01-5) is affirmed GRAS as a direct human food ingredient under 21 CFR 184.1903, where its stated function is "flavouring agent and adjuvant", used at levels not to exceed current good manufacturing practice; [25] it also carries FEMA No. 2223 and JECFA flavouring No. 922. For animal feed use, ingredient status in the US runs through the AAFCO Official Publication and FDA CVM's enforcement policy for AAFCO-defined ingredients (GFI #293, finalised October 2024), and unapproved-food-additive status is assessed by FDA CVM rather than by the human-food GRAS affirmation. Confirm the AAFCO definition, the intended-function statement and state feed-control requirements before marketing.
  • Other markets: most countries require additive registration or notification per species and per claimed function. Where a product is placed as a feed material rather than an additive, the claims that may be made are typically narrower. Treat "legal to import" and "legal to claim" as two separate questions.
  • China (country of manufacture, for reference): sodium butyrate (and butyric acid) are listed in the Feed Additive Catalogue under preservatives, mould inhibitors and acidity regulators, with a scope of "all farmed animals". [24] Tributyrin, by contrast, was approved as a new feed additive for broiler chickens only — Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs Announcement No. 614 of November 2022, with the usual five-year monitoring period running to late 2027. [24] Chinese approval scope does not govern what may be claimed in your market.
  • Practical consequence: before publishing, labelling or selling against any performance or gut-health claim, confirm the current authorisation, the approved species and the permitted claim language with the competent authority in the target market.

7. Limitations to keep in mind

  • The weaner evidence base is dominated by small trials and by two meta-analyses with different inclusion criteria; pooled effect sizes are large but heterogeneity is high, and one meta-analysis found no morphology effect at all. [2],[3]
  • Grower–finisher data are sparse: one thesis with 10 pigs per group and a handful of peer-reviewed trials. [11],[12]
  • Sow and gilt data are inconsistent — reproduction endpoints were largely unaffected in the gilt trial, and the positive findings were in piglet growth and colostrum composition. [17],[18]
  • Challenge results are context-dependent: the pre-slaughter Salmonella effect appeared in one farm trial and not the other. [13]
  • Several sources cited are theses, translated trade press or supplier-reported trials rather than peer-reviewed papers; each is flagged where used. They should inform, not anchor, a formulation decision.

Frequently asked questions

How much tributyrin should I use in nursery pig feed?

Published dose–response work in weaned piglets found 1,000 mg/kg already improved digestibility, 1,000–1,500 mg/kg matched an antibiotic growth promoter, and 2,000–2,500 mg/kg added performance, morphology and immune benefits on top. [4] Independent nursery trials used 0.2% (2,000 mg/kg) successfully against an antibiotic and against a zinc-oxide-plus-antibiotic programme. [5],[6] Convert to butyrate ion when comparing products, and confirm local regulatory status first (Section 6).

Tributyrin or coated sodium butyrate — which is better in pigs?

The pig literature has no clean head-to-head equivalent of the broiler trial published by Yan et al. (2023). What exists suggests both work, by different routes: tributyrin relies on lipase-mediated release along the small intestine, [9] while coated sodium butyrate is designed to carry butyrate further distally. [8] Choose on target segment, processing conditions (odour, pelleting), delivered butyrate-ion cost per tonne — and on what is legally approved for pigs in your market.

Does butyrate still pay in a healthy, high-health herd?

The sodium butyrate meta-analysis found the effect concentrated in the first two weeks after weaning and did not detect a significant whole-period feed-efficiency effect, [3] and the commercial-farm tributyrin-blend trial with the largest FCR response was on a low-challenge farm but produced only +3.7% ADG. [10] Expect the largest, most consistent returns where weaning stress or enteric pressure is real.

Can butyrate help with post-weaning diarrhoea and Salmonella?

Under ETEC F4/F18 co-infection, 0.1% butyrate glycerides significantly reduced diarrhoea severity in a 20-piglet pilot study. [15] For Salmonella, sodium butyrate at 3 kg/t for ~4 weeks before slaughter reduced faecal detection in one of two commercial finisher trials and significantly reduced faecal concentration in an experimental grower infection model, while not significantly improving growth. [13],[14] These are research findings under defined challenge conditions; they are not disease-prevention claims and do not replace biosecurity.

Is it legal to use tributyrin in pig feed?

Not everywhere, and not necessarily as an additive. In China, tributyrin's new feed additive approval (Announcement No. 614, 2022) is scoped to broiler chickens, while sodium butyrate is listed for all farmed animals. [24] In the EU, glyceryl tributyrate is authorised as a flavouring compound (2b09211) with a recommended maximum of 5 mg/kg complete feed — far below nutritional inclusion levels and without zootechnical claims. [23] Confirm the current position with your competent authority before formulating or making any claim.

References

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  2. Yang X, Sun P, Li Y, Sun L, Lu G, Chen G. Meta-analysis of the effect of tributyrin on growth performance and diarrhea rate in weaned piglets. Feed Industry (China). Online first 18 January 2024. CNKI: link.cnki.net/urlid/21.1169.S.20240118.1124.004 (12 studies, 838 pigs; no DOI assigned).
  3. Chalvon-Demersay T, et al. Meta-analysis of effects of sodium butyrate supplementation on the performance and intestinal morphology of post-weaning piglets. Proceedings of the 10th Symposium on Gut Health in Production of Food Animals, St. Louis, USA, 2022 (animal – science proceedings). ScienceDirect article S2772283X23027334.
  4. Zhu R, Xu W, Wang H, Sun S, Liu X, Liu J, Hu H. Effects of dietary supplementation of different levels of tributyrin on growth performance, serum biochemical indices, intestinal morphology and nutrient digestibility of weaned piglets. Chinese Journal of Animal Nutrition. 2020;32(2):664–673. doi:10.3969/j.issn.1006-267X.2020.02.022.
  5. Chen J. Effects of tributyrin on growth performance and diarrhea rate in nursery pigs. Fujian Journal of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine. 2024;46(4):44–46.
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  7. Gu Y, Zhou J. Application of butyric acid in weaned piglets (review). Swine Production (China). 2022;(6):11–13. doi:10.13257/j.cnki.21-1104/s.2022.06.003. (Compiles Galfi et al. 1990; Piva et al. 2002; Kotunia et al. 2004; Manzanilla et al. 2006; Hou et al. 2006 — consult originals.)
  8. Zhang C, Liu J, Li H, Dong L, Yu L. Research progress on the application of butyric acid derivatives in piglet production. Feed Research. 2022;(20):126–129. doi:10.13557/j.cnki.issn1002-2813.2022.20.026.
  9. Yuan Q, Peng Y. Digestion, absorption and application of tributyrin in swine production. Feed Industry (China). 2017;38(17):20–23. doi:10.13302/j.cnki.fi.2017.17.005.
  10. Damen E. Glycerides of butyric acid for pig health. Pig Health. 2018, May:22–23. Chinese translation: Zhang W. Animal Science Abroad – Pigs and Poultry. 2018;38(9):18–19. (Manufacturer-reported commercial farm trial of its own α-monobutyrin + tributyrin blend.)
  11. Sun J. Effects of sodium butyrate on growth performance and intestinal health of growing-finishing pigs. MS thesis, Southwest University, Chongqing, 2019.
  12. Morel PCH, Chidgey KL, Jenkinson CMC, Lizarraga I, Schreurs NM. Effect of benzoic acid, sodium butyrate and sodium butyrate coated with benzoic acid on growth performance, digestibility, intestinal morphology and meat quality in grower-finisher pigs. Livestock Science. 2019;226:107–113.
  13. Walia K, Argüello H, Lynch H, Leonard FC, Grant J, Yearsley D, Kelly S, Duffy G, Gardiner GE, Lawlor PG. Effect of feeding sodium butyrate in the late finishing period on Salmonella carriage, seroprevalence, and growth of finishing pigs. Preventive Veterinary Medicine. 2016;131:79–86.
  14. Lynch H, Leonard FC, Walia K, Lawlor PG, Duffy G, Fanning S, Markey BK, Brady C, Gardiner GE, Argüello H. Investigation of in-feed organic acids as a low cost strategy to combat Salmonella in grower pigs. Preventive Veterinary Medicine. 2017;139(Pt A):50–57. doi:10.1016/j.prevetmed.2017.02.008.
  15. Kovanda L, Park J, Li X, et al. Dietary butyrate and valerate glycerides impact diarrhea severity and immune response of weaned piglets under ETEC F4–ETEC F18 coinfection conditions. Journal of Animal Science. 2023;101:skad401. doi:10.1093/jas/skad401.
  16. Casanova-Higes A, Andrés-Barranco S, Mainar-Jaime RC. Effect of the addition of protected sodium butyrate to the feed on Salmonella spp. infection dynamics in fattening pigs. Animal Feed Science and Technology. 2017;231:12–18.
  17. Ji X. The effect of maternal diet supplementation with high fiber and sodium butyrate during gestation and lactation on longissimus muscle characteristics of piglets. MS thesis, Nanjing Agricultural University, 2016.
  18. Wang M. Effects of dietary supplementation of sodium butyrate and betaine on reproductive performance and colostrum composition in gilts. MS thesis, Nanjing Agricultural University, 2015.
  19. Lu C, Feng B, Huang J. Effects of butyrate on reproductive performance of sows and its mechanisms (review). Chinese Journal of Animal Nutrition. 2022;34(12).
  20. Zheng L. The effects of tributyrin on in vitro maturation of porcine oocytes and in vitro development of embryos. MS thesis, Henan Agricultural University, 2025. (In vitro study.)
  21. Sadurni M, Barroeta AC, Sol C, Puyalto M, Castillejos L. Effects of dietary crude protein level and sodium butyrate protected by medium-chain fatty acid salts on performance and gut health in weaned piglets. Journal of Animal Science. 2023;101:skad090.
  22. Chen W. A meta-analysis of short-chain fatty acids and their derivatives in regulating immune function of livestock, and evaluation of the application effect of tributyrin. MS thesis, Nanjing Agricultural University, 2021. (Network meta-analysis of immune indices; animal trials in poultry.)
  23. EU regulatory status: Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2023/1417 of 5 July 2023 concerning the authorisation of butyric acid and other substances as feed additives for all animal species (functional group: flavouring compounds); Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2017/54 — additive 2b09211, glyceryl tributyrate, CAS 60-01-5, FLAVIS 09.211, sensory additives / flavouring compounds, recommended maximum 5 mg/kg complete feed (12% moisture), authorisation expires 6 February 2027.
  24. China regulatory status: Feed Additive Catalogue (饲料添加剂品种目录) — butyric acid and sodium butyrate listed under preservatives, mould inhibitors and acidity regulators, scope "all farmed animals"; tributyrin approved as a new feed additive for broiler chickens, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs Announcement No. 614 (November 2022), five-year monitoring period to late 2027.
  25. US regulatory status: 21 CFR 184.1903 — Tributyrin (CAS Reg. No. 60-01-5), affirmed GRAS as a direct human food ingredient, function "flavouring agent and adjuvant", use not to exceed current good manufacturing practice; FEMA No. 2223; JECFA flavouring No. 922. FDA CVM, Guidance for Industry #293: FDA Enforcement Policy for AAFCO-Defined Animal Feed Ingredients (final, October 2024).

About the author and conflict of interest: Shouhui Chen is with SKF (Beijing) Biotechnology Co., Ltd., which manufactures and sells butyric acid and butyrate ester products. This article is published with that commercial interest disclosed.

Disclaimer: This article summarises published research for technical information only. It is not peer-reviewed as a publication, is not veterinary or medical advice, and is not a substitute for professional veterinary or nutritionist guidance. Findings attributed to studies are the conclusions of those studies under their own experimental conditions; they are not product efficacy claims and not a guarantee of comparable results. Several cited sources are master's theses, translated trade-press articles or manufacturer-reported trials, and are identified as such. Nothing here is a claim that any substance prevents, treats, cures or reduces the risk of disease in animals.

Regulatory notice: This article is written for an international audience. The regulatory status of tributyrin, sodium butyrate and coated butyrate products, and the claims permitted for them, differ by country, by target species and by intended function. In the EU, the existing authorisation for glyceryl tributyrate is a sensory/flavouring authorisation (additive 2b09211) with a recommended maximum of 5 mg/kg complete feed; it does not cover performance or gut-health claims. In the US, tributyrin is affirmed GRAS for human food as a flavouring agent under 21 CFR 184.1903, which is not by itself an animal-feed authorisation; feed use is assessed under AAFCO definitions and FDA CVM policy. In China, tributyrin's new feed additive approval is currently scoped to broiler chickens, whereas sodium butyrate is listed for all farmed animals — Chinese approval scope does not determine what may be claimed elsewhere. Do not reproduce any statement from this article on product labels, in advertising or in sales material without confirming the current authorisation status, approved species and permitted claims with the competent authority in the target market.

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